ÉTUDES
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VICTOR SPINEI, Les tribus nomades de steppe dans l’espace carpato-danubien depuis la préhistoire jusqu’au début du premier millénaire de l’ère chrétienne
The domestication of the horse furnished an essential impetus to the phenomenon of nomadism, which gradually spread across the entire steppelands of Eurasia. The earliest nomadic waves, represented by members of the Suvorovo‑Casimcea cultural group, encroached on the lowlands north of the mouths of the Danube in the Eneolithic, ending the development of the Bolgrad‑Aldeni cultural aspect of the Gumelnița culture. After this moment, agricultural cultures disappear for several millennia from the Budjak, Bărăgan and northern Dobroudja, where equestrian nomads arriving in successive waves from the Ponto‑Caspian steppes take hold instead. Specific for these populations was inhumation in flat and tumular graves, with very scarce traces of settled life. Starting with the Hallstatt era, the Danubian regions are home to Cimmerian, Scythian, Sarmatian, Alanian, and Iassian, tribes of Iranian affiliation. Their dominance ended with the Hunnic invasion, which opened the approximately millennium‑long era of Turkic hegemony. The displacement from the plains of the agricultural communities was an episode of major significance for the evolution of the Lower Danube area, since it instituted a lifestyle specific to the nomadic tribes of Eurasia that lasted for several millennia. The control of these regions, commenced by the entrance of steppe elements around 3600 BC, ended definitely with the exodus of the Tatars from Budjak in 1806. Short interruptions of the nomadic domination occurred with the settling of these areas by northern Thracian communities in the 7th/6th‑th/4th centuries BC and Germanic tribes (the Sântana de Mureș–Chernyakhov culture) in the 3rd‑4th centuries, followed by the pluriethnic Dridu culture of the 8th‑10th century. Towards the end of the 14th century, the Moldavian state took possession of the Budjak, holding it until 1484. The examination of the funerary complexes and written sources concerning the nomadic communities that migrated to the Lower Danube shows that they were generally bereft of ethnic unity and that they operated as conservative societies in which the traditions of pastoral life and the ancestral social and spiritual/religious norms were abided to.migrations,
Keywords: migrations, nomadic tribes, flat and tumular graves, Suvorovo‑Casimcea, Usatovo, Yamnaya, Catacomb, Mnogovalikovaya, Sabatinovka, Coslogeni, Belozerka – archaeological cultures, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Iassians, Budjak, Bărăgan, Dobroudja
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ALEXANDRU CIORNEI, WEI CHU, IZABELA MARIŞ, ADRIAN DOBOȘ, Lithic raw material procurement patterns at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Românești – Dumbrăvița I (southwestern Romania)
This paper presents the results of the petroarchaeological analysis of lithic raw materials from the Upper Palaeolithic site of Românești – Dumbrăvița I. The recent archaeological investigations included field surveys for possible raw material supply sources near the site and petrographic analyses of archaeological and geological samples. The field surveys covered a NW‑SE orientated strip between Temerești‑Românești‑Tomești‑Poieni villages, focusing on the source of the so‑called “Banat flint” near Poieni village. The resulted data showed that the “Banat flint” and other cherts identified in the area are derived from at least three faults in the Neoproterozoic‑Palaeozoic metamorphic suite of the NW Poiana Ruscă Mountains. These cherts are the product of the post‑deformational silicification of metacarbonate rocks involved in the faulting processes. They are abundant and have a widespread occurrence in the landscape, as inferred from the frequency and distribution of the find spots. The petrographic analysis of the archaeological materials showed that the predominant raw materials used at Românești – Dumbrăvița I are the shear zone related cherts (including the “Banat flint”). Beside these, other raw material categories were identified: quartzite and vein quartz, other siliceous rocks, obsidian, diagenetic cherts and siliceous mudstones/marlstones. Except for the obsidian, all the other categories suggest a narrow area of raw material procurement territories (< 60 km) for both assemblages from Românești – Dumbrăvița I, with the bulk of them supplied from local sources (< 10 km).
Keywords: Poiana Ruscă, Banat flint, fault chert, supply sources
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ANCA-DIANA POPESCU, RADU BĂJENARU, MARTA PETRUNEAC, ROBERT SÎRBU, DUMITRU HORTOPAN, DANIELA CRISTEA-STAN, MIRCEA LECHINŢAN, The deposition of bronze artefacts from Preajba Mare (Gorj County, Romania)
The debate focuses on two complete socketed axes recovered by metal detecting from a forest nearby Preajba Mare, Gorj County. The artefacts are typologically different, but they both date from the Late Bronze Age or the beginning of the Iron Age (Bz D–Ha A1). One of the socketed axes has a bronze rod twisted around it and the interior of the socket is stuffed with bronze items. X‑ray computed tomography provided diverse information of technological nature and allowed visualizing inside the socket of the respective axe. Wedging metal fragments or even complete items made of other raw materials inside socketed axes were highlighted by Svend Hansen over 20 years ago. There are few finds of blocked socketed axes compared to the total number of such artefacts. In south‑east Europe such artefacts occur in hoards consisting usually of both complete and fragmented items and dated mainly to the Bz D–Ha A1 period. The paper reviews the main opinions regarding the motivations that might have triggered such a practice – stuffing the area where the handle was inserted when the piece was functional. The final part of the paper discusses the particular case of Preajba Mare where within the same area with the socketed axes were also found fragmented bronze implements, deposited most likely during the Ha A1 period. Whether the complete artefacts represent a hoard on itself, separate from that of the fragmented implements or the two categories of artefacts – complete and fragmented – represent a single hoard are two different hypotheses, in their own right.
Keywords: socketed axes, axe with bronze artefacts stuffed inside the socket, hoard, Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age (Bz D–Ha A1), south‑western Romania
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FLORINA PANAIT-BÎRZESCU, The eagle on dolphin on the coins of Olbia, Histria and Sinope. Its origin and meaning
The article deals with the origin and meaning of an emblematic image that was struck on the coins of Histria, Olbia and Sinope for a long period of time: the eagle on dolphin. After a short review of the hypotheses made so far, the author takes into account the theory of a lost tradition about a foundation myth common to all three Milesian colonies. Given the lack of written evidence about local Black Sea lore, the article proposes a comparative analysis of the complex composition of iconographical motifs involving an eagle and dolphin in their historical context. The images on the coins of Elis/Olympia and Acragas, which are the closest analogies, are put in relation not only to their historical context, but especially to the mythological references to which they are related. These reveal the interpretation of the attacking eagle as a favourable omen for victory. The attacked animal was replaced on the coins of the three Milesian colonies with a dolphin, a symbol not of a particular deity, but of the sea itself. Therefore, the image of the eagle attacking a dolphin can be read as a favourable omen for a victory over the unfriendly sea. The image is discussed both in the context of the Ionian mythical narrative, and of the local tradition, traces of which can be seen in the representations on the obverse of coins from these three sites.
Keywords: eagle, dolphin, coins, Olbia, Histria, Sinope, mythical foundations, local identity
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CRISTINA-GEORGETA ALEXANDRESCU, Zu den sog. Oinophoroi aus Greci und Tulcea (Kr. Tulcea, RO)
The two cylindrical vessels with relief decoration from Greci and Tulcea (Tulcea County, Romania), assigned to the category of Cnidian relief ware / oinophoroi, are presented in the light of the latest discoveries and investigations of this category of Roman ceramics, taking into account their iconography and their technical and stylistic characteristics. The present analysis points out the existence of several examples of this category from the northern part of the province of Moesia inferior, and addresses also the question of production of this kind of Roman pottery. They are one more evidence of the region’s trade relations with the Asia Minor region during the Roman period.
Keywords: oinophoros, Cnidian relief ware, Moesia inferior, iconography
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MARIUS BLASKÓ, The early seventeenth-century hoard discovered at Zimnicea, Teleorman County (“Zimnicea I and II”)
The “Vasile Pârvan” Institute of Archaeology holds two late‑medieval unpublished coin finds (ending in 1600 and 1601) from Zimnicea, Teleorman County, mentioned and cited in the literature as hoards Zimnicea I and Zimnicea II despite never having been published. Zimnicea I contains one Venetian gold coin and 133 silver coins from the Polish‑Lithuanian Commonwealth (125), the Holy Roman Empire (4), Transylvania (2), and the Spanish Netherlands (2). Zimnicea II contains three gold coins (one Venetian, one Dutch, and one Ottoman) and 239 silver coins from the Polish‑Lithuanian Commonwealth (214), the Holy Roman Empire (15), Transylvania (6), Hungary (3), and the Spanish Netherlands (1). Their full publication and its analysis reveal a series of similarities between them. Upon review of this data and past references in the literature, despite their individual registration in the Institute’s records, the author concludes that the two finds are most probably part of one single hoard. The structure of this larger hoard would also be consonant with the characteristic of coin circulation at the turn of the century, one greatly influenced by the Long Turkish War (1593‑1606), which saw the emergence of Polish‑Lithuanian coins, and Imperial and Dutch thalers. Based on the hoard’s structure, the author considers that the find from Zimnicea – one of the main crossing points of the Danube at the time – was probably buried or lost in the background of the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1601 or 1602.
Keywords: numismatics, Zimnicea, coin hoard, 16th century, 17th century
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NOTES ET DISCUSSIONS
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ALEXANDRU AVRAM, RENATA-GABRIELA TATOMIR, Un exemplaire de l’« inscription standard » du roi Aššurnasirpal II au Musée National des Antiquités de Bucarest
The authors re‑publish and supplement with a commentary a small size duplicate of a fragment of the so‑called “standard inscription” of the Assyrian king Aššurnasirpal II (Tocilescu 1902, p. 479‑484), originating from the North‑West Palace at Kalḫu (Nimrud) and bought in 1875 by Cezar Bolliac. This object is to be added to the more than 400 duplicates known so far, located in particular in the British Museum, but also in other museums or private collections over the entire world.
Keywords: Aššurnasirpal II, Kalḫu (Nimrud), inscription, duplicates
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RENATA-GABRIELA TATOMIR, On the ushabti-box in the collections of the “Vasile Pârvan” Institute of Archaeology
The object E 67 belongs to the Ancient Egyptian Fund in the collections of the “Vasile Pârvan” Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest. It is a singular piece, a wooden ushabti‑box whose funerary utility was to house the statuettes of funerary servants of shabti/shawabti/ushabti type. The lid of the funerary casket is missing. From the inventory records we learn only that it comes from the Mihail C. Sutzu donation (made sometime after 1870). Therefore, it is impossible to determine from which site the piece originates. Furthermore, its typological classification and the identity of its owner are rather problematic, and as a result, this severely affects the possibility of exact dating. The wooden ushabti‑box has been whitewashed then polychrome painted, and it still displays a hieroglyphic inscription which runs continuously, in columns, from right to left, on each of its four outer sides. The inscription consists of the offering formula addressed to several funerary deities: Osiris‑Khenti‑amentiw, Atum, Ptah‑Sokar‑Osiris, Ra‑Horakhty, Wennen‑nefer, Geb. The inscription is recorded in semi‑cursive hieroglyphic writing. The text is deteriorated to a significant extent, so that in some places the proposed reading can be reconstructed based on the information provided by similar offering formulas, due to the presence of relatively standardized expressions, or by association with other known formulas. In a few other cases, the difficulty of deciphering the inscription is caused by the fact that some hieroglyphs are drawn either extremely cursively, or it is possible that the scribe himself has confused the signs, or they are erased or partially damaged. This is the case of the back curved and shorter side 2 and front curved and shorter side 4 respectively, on which it can be noticed the quite visible traces of some erased hieroglyphs, as well as some other hieroglyphs which have been drawn carelessly. The inscription mentions the female name of the owner, Dd‑mwt‑i(w).s‑anx. This is a common name during the Third Intermediate Period (the 21st Dynasty and later), if we were to mention here only the case of a well‑known feminine character, the homonymous Priestess with the high rank of Chantress of the God Amun and Chief of Amun’s Harem of Thebes. The tomb where she is interred, MM60, is located at Deir el‑Bahari, in the Theban Necropolis, on the west bank of the Nile in current Luxor. It is also the burial place of several high‑ranking individuals dating to the 21st Dynasty. However, our current information does not suggest any connection between Dd‑mwt‑i(w).s‑anx, the feminine owner of the ushabti‑box E 67 from the “Vasile Pârvan” Institute of Archeology in Bucharest, and the 21st Dynasty homonymous Priestess of Amun in Thebes.
Keywords: : ushabti, ushabti‑box, Djedmwtesankh, Mihail C. Sutzu, “Vasile Pârvan” Institute of Archaeology, Third Intermediate Period, Osiris‑Khenti‑amentiw, Ptah‑Sokar‑Osiris, Geb, Ra-Horakhty, Wennen-Nefer, Atum, Thebes, Deir el‑Bahari
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DRAGOŞ HĂLMAGI, Three inscriptions from Callatis
The article reconsiders three Greek inscriptions from Callatis: 1. ISM III, 33, a fragment mentioning repairs to an edifice and the administration of a reserve fund for expenditures; 2. ISM III, 34, whose first ten lines are from an official’s letter concerning the shortage of food; 3. ISM III, 122, a dedication to Noumenios, honouring him as archiereus, three times eponymous magistrate, and ambassador on behalf of the city to the Roman emperor Caracalla.
Keywords: repairs, reserve fund, letter, food shortage, olive oil, prices, honorific inscriptions, Caracalla, ambassador, eponymous magistrates
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ERGÜN LAFLI, EVA CHRISTOF, A new stele of a retiarius from Marmaris in Caria (southwestern Turkey)
In the Roman Imperial period gladiatorial combats were an important sort of entertainment for the broad public, throughout the Roman world, including the cities of Asia Minor. One large group of the surviving stone monuments with relief decoration showing gladiators and gladiatorial scenes are funerary steles. A marble pediment stele found in 2007 presumably in the Marmaris district, in the ancient region of Caria (today’s southwestern Turkey) enriches our knowledge of the types of funerary stelae with gladiators, which consists of a representation of a single gladiator that is clearly identified by his attributes. These attributes are a trident and a dagger, which were the common weapons of a retiarius. It is a remarkable depiction in that it reproduces the gladiator’s clothing of the upper body precisely and more detailed than in similar representations in a variant which is typical in Asia Minor. The rasp marks on the borders of the picture field suggest either that the stele originally bore the name of the deceased on the lower border, which was erased for secondary use, or that the front side of a previous stele was lowered, the stonemason concentrated on working on the figure and subsequently the frame was not finished anymore. It can be assumed that in the 2nd‑3rd century AD the stele was placed in the context of a gladiatorial cemetery in an ancient city near Marmaris in Caria.
Keywords: gladiator, retiarius, funerary stele, Marmaris, Caria, Asia Minor, Roman period, 2nd‑3rd century AD
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COMPTES RENDUS
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Peter Högemann, Norbert Oettinger, Lydien. Ein altanatolischer Staat zwischen Griechenland und dem Vorderen Orient, De Gruyter, Berlin, 2018, X + 511 S. (Liviu Mihail Iancu)
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Norbert Kunisch, Die attische Importkeramik, Milet: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen seit dem Jahr 1899, Bd. 5: Funde aus Milet, Teil 3, De Gruyter, Berlin – Boston, 2016, X+221 S., 130 Tafeln (Iulian Bîrzescu)
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Kirsten Hellström, Fibeln und Fibeltracht der Sarmatischen Zeit im Nordschwarzmeergebiet (2. Jh. v. Chr. – 3. Jh. n. Chr.), Archäologie in Eurasien 39, Habelt Publishing House, Bonn, 2018, 284 pages, 94 plates (Daniel Spânu)
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Andrei Gândilă, Cultural Encounters on Byzantium’s Northern Frontier, c. AD 500–700. Coins, Artifacts and History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018, 376 Seiten, 40 Abbildungen und mit dem Anhang Corpus of Early Byzantine Coin Finds in Barbaricum (Péter Somogyi)
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Георги Владимиров, Обеци с форма на въпросителен знак от средновековна България (XIII-XIV в.) за материалните следи от куманите и Златната орда в културата на Второто българско царство (Georgi Vladimirov, Question Mark Shaped Earrings from Medieval Bulgaria (13th-14th Century) on the Material Traces of Cumans and Golden Horde in the Culture of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom), Sofia, 2019, 86 p. (Victor Spinei)
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IN MEMORIAM
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Alexandru Barnea (17 février 1944 – 8 mai 2020) (Adriana Panaite)
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Abréviations
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